David Hume: The Great Scottish Philosopher

David Hume Statue. Photo by K. Mitch Hodge on Unsplash

In this article, we shall discuss the great Scottish Enlightenment philosopher, David Hume, who is widely regarded as one of the most influential thinkers in Western philosophy.

Who was David Hume?

David Hume (1711-1776) was a Scottish philosopher, historian, economist, and essayist who is best known for his contributions to the fields of philosophy and empiricism. He is considered one of the most important figures in Western philosophy and is particularly influential in the areas of epistemology (the study of knowledge), metaphysics (the study of the fundamental nature of reality), ethics, and philosophy of religion.

Hume’s works include “A Treatise of Human Nature” (1739-1740), “An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding” (1748), “An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals” (1751), and “Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion” (published posthumously in 1779). His writings continue to be studied and debated by philosophers to this day, and he remains a central figure in the history of philosophy.

What was the early life of David Hume like?

David Hume was born on May 7, 1711, in Edinburgh, Scotland. His early life was marked by a mixture of family influences, educational experiences, and personal circumstances. Here are some key aspects of his early life:

1. Family Background: David Hume came from a relatively well-to-do family. His father, Joseph Hume, was a lawyer and a minor landowner, and his mother, Katherine Falconer, came from a prestigious family. He had a total of five siblings, and he was the second son.
2. Education: Hume showed an early aptitude for learning and attended the University of Edinburgh at the age of 12. He later enrolled at the University of St. Andrews and then studied at the University of Glasgow, where he focused on a wide range of subjects, including philosophy, literature, and the sciences.
3. Early Career: Hume initially pursued a career in business, working for a merchant in Bristol, England. However, he found the work unfulfilling and decided to devote himself to philosophy and writing. This decision was influenced by his passion for intellectual pursuits and his desire to engage with the ideas of the Enlightenment.
4. Influences: During his time in France, Hume was exposed to the writings of French philosophers such as René Descartes, Pierre Bayle, and Nicolas Malebranche. He was also influenced by the empiricist philosophy of John Locke and George Berkeley, which played a significant role in shaping his own philosophical views.
5. Writing: Hume’s early writings included essays, letters, and works on various topics, including politics, religion, and aesthetics. However, his most significant early work was “A Treatise of Human Nature,” which he began writing in his early twenties and published in three volumes between 1739 and 1740. The treatise, though not widely recognized during his lifetime, later became one of his most influential works.
6. Return to Scotland: After his time in France and England, Hume returned to Scotland and settled in Edinburgh. He continued to write and engage with other intellectuals of his time, including Adam Smith and Jean-Jacques Rousseau.

Hume’s early life was marked by a passion for learning and a desire to engage with the intellectual currents of his era. His decision to pursue a career in philosophy and writing ultimately led to his significant contributions to philosophy and made him one of the most influential figures of the Scottish Enlightenment.

Who were Hume’s philosophical influences?

David Hume was influenced by several philosophical and intellectual traditions and thinkers during his lifetime. Some of his key philosophical influences include:

1. Empiricism: Hume’s empiricist approach to philosophy, which emphasizes the role of sensory experience as the foundation of knowledge, was influenced by earlier empiricists, particularly John Locke and George Berkeley. Locke’s “Essay Concerning Human Understanding” and Berkeley’s works on empiricism had a significant impact on Hume’s development of empiricist ideas.
2. Skepticism: Hume’s philosophical skepticism, especially his skepticism about causation and induction, can be traced back to earlier skeptical thinkers such as the ancient Greek philosopher Sextus Empiricus. These skeptical traditions provided a basis for Hume’s critical examination of the limits of human knowledge.
3. British Moral Philosophy: Hume was influenced by the moral philosophy of his British predecessors, including Francis Hutcheson and Joseph Butler. Francis Hutcheson’s emphasis on the role of sentiment in ethics and the idea of a moral sense influenced Hume’s own moral philosophy.
4. Rationalism: While Hume is often associated with empiricism, he engaged with rationalist philosophers of his time, such as René Descartes and Nicolas Malebranche. Hume’s work reflects his engagement with and critique of rationalist metaphysical and epistemological positions.
5. British Enlightenment: Hume was part of the broader intellectual movement known as the Scottish Enlightenment, which included thinkers like Adam Smith and Thomas Reid. The Scottish Enlightenment was characterized by its emphasis on reason, empiricism, and the exploration of human nature, and Hume’s ideas were shaped by this intellectual milieu.
6. French Philosophy: During his time in France, Hume was exposed to French Enlightenment thinkers, including Voltaire, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and Denis Diderot. These encounters likely had some influence on his thinking and engagement with contemporary philosophical debates.
7. Ancient Philosophy: Hume had a deep appreciation for ancient philosophy, particularly the works of Greek philosophers like Plato and Aristotle. His writings occasionally reference and engage with the ideas of these classical thinkers.

It’s important to note that while Hume was influenced by these philosophical traditions and thinkers, he also developed his own distinctive philosophical views, which included elements of empiricism, skepticism, and moral sentiment theory.

What are some key aspects of Hume’s philosophy?

David Hume’s philosophy encompasses a wide range of topics and ideas, and he made significant contributions to several areas of philosophy. Here are some key aspects of Hume’s philosophy:

1. Empiricism: Hume was a prominent advocate of empiricism, a philosophical position that asserts that knowledge is primarily derived from sensory experience. He argued that all ideas and concepts can be traced back to impressions—vivid and direct sensory experiences.
2. Skepticism: Hume was known for his skepticism, particularly regarding our knowledge of causation and induction. He famously questioned the rational basis for our beliefs in cause-and-effect relationships and our ability to make reliable predictions based on past experiences. He argued that we cannot establish the necessary connection between events that we typically associate with causation.
3. Bundle Theory of the Self: Hume proposed a “bundle theory” of the self, suggesting that our concept of self is an illusion and that there is no enduring, unchanging self. Instead, he argued that the self is a bundle of perceptions and experiences that occur in a continuous stream.
4. Moral Philosophy: Hume made significant contributions to moral philosophy. He argued that moral judgments are not derived from reason but from sentiment and emotions. He believed that moral distinctions arise from human feelings and passions rather than objective moral facts.
5. Problem of Induction: Hume’s work on the problem of induction raised fundamental questions about the reliability of inductive reasoning, which is the basis for scientific inference. He argued that there is no rational justification for our belief in the uniformity of nature or our ability to predict future events based on past experiences.
6. Naturalism: Hume was a naturalist in his approach to philosophy. He believed that philosophy should be grounded in empirical observations and should avoid speculating about metaphysical or supernatural entities. His naturalistic approach influenced subsequent philosophers and the development of modern philosophy.
7. Philosophy of Religion: In his writings on religion, particularly in “Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion,” Hume examined the rationality of religious belief and questioned the credibility of arguments for the existence of God, especially the argument from design.
8. Empirical Basis for Knowledge: Hume’s philosophy emphasized the limitations of human knowledge and the importance of empirical evidence. He believed that knowledge should be grounded in what can be observed and experienced.

David Hume’s philosophy has had a lasting impact on the development of modern philosophy and continues to be studied and debated by philosophers. His contributions to empiricism, skepticism, and moral philosophy have left a significant mark on the field, and his ideas have influenced subsequent philosophers and thinkers in various disciplines.

What are some of the notable writings of David Hume?

David Hume authored several notable works, covering a wide range of philosophical, historical, and essayistic topics. Some of his most significant writings include:

1. “A Treatise of Human Nature” (1739-1740): This is Hume’s most substantial and ambitious work, published in three volumes. In this treatise, he explores various aspects of human understanding, including epistemology, metaphysics, ethics, and aesthetics. Hume’s discussions on causation, the self, and the nature of human beliefs are particularly noteworthy.
2. “An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding” (1748): This is a condensed version of the central ideas from Hume’s “Treatise,” aimed at a more general readership. In this work, he presents his empiricist views on human knowledge, skepticism about causation, and the limitations of reason.
3. “An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals” (1751): In this work, Hume addresses questions of ethics and morality. He explores the nature of moral judgments, the role of sentiment and emotion in ethics, and the idea that moral distinctions are not derived from reason but from human feelings.
4. “Essays, Moral, Political, and Literary” (1741-1752): This collection of essays covers a wide range of topics, including political philosophy, economics, aesthetics, and history. It includes famous essays like “Of Miracles” (which critiques the rationality of belief in miracles) and “Of the Standard of Taste” (which discusses aesthetic judgment).
5. “The History of England” (1754-1762): Hume is also known for his work as a historian. His six-volume “History of England” covers English history from the invasion of Julius Caesar to the Glorious Revolution of 1688. While not without its biases, this work is considered an important historical account and contributed to the development of modern historiography.
6. “Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion” (published posthumously in 1779): This work is a philosophical dialogue that examines the arguments for the existence of God and the nature of religious belief. Hume uses the dialogue format to explore various perspectives on religion and the limits of human reason in matters of faith.
7. “Of the Original Contract” (1748): In this essay, Hume discusses political philosophy and the idea of a social contract. He critically examines theories of government and questions the notion of an original social contract as a basis for political authority.

These writings represent some of David Hume’s most influential contributions to philosophy, history, and literature. His works continue to be studied and debated by scholars in various fields.

Who did David Hume influence?

David Hume’s philosophical ideas have had a profound and far-reaching influence on subsequent philosophers, scholars, and thinkers in various fields. Some of the notable individuals and movements that were influenced by Hume include:

1. Immanuel Kant: Immanuel Kant, a German philosopher of the late 18th century, famously said that Hume’s writings woke him from his “dogmatic slumber.” Hume’s skepticism about causation and induction prompted Kant to develop his critical philosophy, leading to his groundbreaking work in epistemology and metaphysics.
2. Utilitarianism: Hume’s moral philosophy, particularly his emphasis on sentiment and the idea that moral distinctions arise from human emotions, had a significant impact on the development of utilitarian ethics. Philosophers like Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill drew inspiration from Hume’s ethical views when formulating utilitarian principles.
3. Scottish Enlightenment: Hume was a prominent figure in the Scottish Enlightenment, a period of intellectual flourishing in Scotland during the 18th century. His works influenced other Scottish Enlightenment thinkers, including Adam Smith (economist and philosopher) and Thomas Reid (philosopher), who responded to and engaged with Hume’s ideas.
4. Empiricism: Hume’s empiricist philosophy, which emphasized the importance of sensory experience and impressions, contributed to the development of empiricism as a philosophical tradition. Later empiricists such as John Stuart Mill and the logical positivists of the Vienna Circle were influenced by Hume’s empiricist approach.
5. Pragmatism: Some aspects of Hume’s philosophy, particularly his emphasis on experience and the limitations of reason, resonated with the pragmatic tradition in philosophy. American pragmatists like Charles Sanders Peirce and William James were influenced by Hume’s ideas on knowledge and belief.
6. Analytic Philosophy: Hume’s writings, especially his discussions on causation, induction, and the problem of induction, played a role in shaping the analytic philosophy tradition. Philosophers like Bertrand Russell and A.J. Ayer engaged with Hume’s ideas and contributed to the development of logical positivism and analytic philosophy.
7. Philosophy of Religion: Hume’s writings on religion, particularly his skepticism about miracles and his dialogues on natural religion, influenced subsequent discussions in the philosophy of religion. His critiques of religious arguments continue to be relevant in contemporary debates on religion and atheism.
8. Modern Philosophy: Hume’s philosophical contributions helped shape the landscape of modern philosophy, influencing discussions in epistemology, metaphysics, ethics, and other areas. His empiricism, skepticism, and emphasis on the role of human psychology in philosophy remain subjects of study and debate in contemporary philosophy.

Overall, David Hume’s ideas continue to be a rich source of inspiration and debate for philosophers and scholars in various fields, and his influence extends far beyond his own time and place.

What is Hume’s legacy today?

David Hume’s legacy today is significant and enduring, as his philosophical ideas and contributions continue to influence and shape various areas of contemporary thought. Some aspects of Hume’s legacy include:

1. Philosophy: Hume is considered one of the most important figures in the history of Western philosophy. His empiricism, skepticism, and emphasis on the role of human psychology in philosophy continue to be subjects of study and debate in contemporary philosophy. His work on causation, induction, and the problem of induction, in particular, remains relevant to discussions in epistemology and metaphysics.
2. Moral Philosophy: Hume’s moral philosophy, which centers on the idea that moral judgments are based on sentiment and emotions, has had a lasting influence on ethical theory. His ideas have contributed to the development of utilitarianism and discussions on the relationship between reason and morality.
3. Philosophy of Religion: Hume’s writings on religion, especially his skepticism about miracles and religious arguments, continue to be cited and debated in contemporary discussions about atheism, religious belief, and the philosophy of religion.
4. Empiricism and Science: Hume’s empiricist philosophy, emphasizing the importance of sensory experience and evidence, remains relevant to the philosophy of science. It has influenced discussions on scientific method, theory confirmation, and the nature of scientific knowledge.
5. Political Philosophy: While Hume’s political philosophy is often overshadowed by his contributions to epistemology and ethics, his writings on topics such as justice, government, and the social contract have had an impact on contemporary discussions of political theory.
6. Literature: Hume’s literary and historical works, including “The History of England,” continue to be studied by historians and scholars of literature. His clear and engaging writing style has contributed to his enduring influence in these fields.
7. Influence on Later Philosophers: Hume’s ideas played a crucial role in the development of subsequent philosophical movements, such as German idealism (influencing Immanuel Kant), utilitarianism (influencing Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill), and analytic philosophy (contributing to discussions on causation and induction).
8. Continued Debate: Hume’s philosophy continues to be a source of debate and scholarship. Contemporary philosophers engage with his ideas, offering new interpretations and responses to the challenges he posed.

David Hume’s legacy today is multifaceted and far-reaching. His contributions to philosophy, ethics, epistemology, and other areas of thought continue to shape intellectual discourse and inspire philosophical inquiry. His ideas are not only historically significant but also remain relevant to contemporary discussions in a wide range of disciplines.